Cumincad : CUMINCAD Papers : Search Results

CumInCAD is a Cumulative Index about publications in Computer Aided Architectural Design
supported by the sibling associations ACADIA, CAADRIA, eCAADe, SIGraDi, ASCAAD and CAAD futures

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Reformat results as: short short into frame detailed detailed into frame

_id	78ca
authors	Friedland, P. (Ed.)
year	1985
title	Special Section on Architectures for Knowledge-Based Systems
source	CACM (28), 9, September
summary	A fundamental shift in the preferred approach to building applied artificial intelligence (AI) systems has taken place since the late 1960s. Previous work focused on the construction of general-purpose intelligent systems; the emphasis was on powerful inference methods that could function efficiently even when the available domain-specific knowledge was relatively meager. Today the emphasis is on the role of specific and detailed knowledge, rather than on reasoning methods.The first successful application of this method, which goes by the name of knowledge-based or expert-system research, was the DENDRAL program at Stanford, a long-term collaboration between chemists and computer scientists for automating the determination of molecular structure from empirical formulas and mass spectral data. The key idea is that knowledge is power, for experts, be they human or machine, are often those who know more facts and heuristics about a domain than lesser problem solvers. The task of building an expert system, therefore, is predominantly one of teaching" a system enough of these facts and heuristics to enable it to perform competently in a particular problem-solving context. Such a collection of facts and heuristics is commonly called a knowledge base. Knowledge-based systems are still dependent on inference methods that perform reasoning on the knowledge base, but experience has shown that simple inference methods like generate and test, backward-chaining, and forward-chaining are very effective in a wide variety of problem domains when they are coupled with powerful knowledge bases. If this methodology remains preeminent, then the task of constructing knowledge bases becomes the rate-limiting factor in expert-system development. Indeed, a major portion of the applied AI research in the last decade has been directed at developing techniques and tools for knowledge representation. We are now in the third generation of such efforts. The first generation was marked by the development of enhanced AI languages like Interlisp and PROLOG. The second generation saw the development of knowledge representation tools at AI research institutions; Stanford, for instance, produced EMYCIN, The Unit System, and MRS. The third generation is now producing fully supported commercial tools like KEE and S.1. Each generation has seen a substantial decrease in the amount of time needed to build significant expert systems. Ten years ago prototype systems commonly took on the order of two years to show proof of concept; today such systems are routinely built in a few months. Three basic methodologies-frames, rules, and logic-have emerged to support the complex task of storing human knowledge in an expert system. Each of the articles in this Special Section describes and illustrates one of these methodologies. "The Role of Frame-Based Representation in Reasoning," by Richard Fikes and Tom Kehler, describes an object-centered view of knowledge representation, whereby all knowldge is partitioned into discrete structures (frames) having individual properties (slots). Frames can be used to represent broad concepts, classes of objects, or individual instances or components of objects. They are joined together in an inheritance hierarchy that provides for the transmission of common properties among the frames without multiple specification of those properties. The authors use the KEE knowledge representation and manipulation tool to illustrate the characteristics of frame-based representation for a variety of domain examples. They also show how frame-based systems can be used to incorporate a range of inference methods common to both logic and rule-based systems.""Rule-Based Systems," by Frederick Hayes-Roth, chronicles the history and describes the implementation of production rules as a framework for knowledge representation. In essence, production rules use IF conditions THEN conclusions and IF conditions THEN actions structures to construct a knowledge base. The autor catalogs a wide range of applications for which this methodology has proved natural and (at least partially) successful for replicating intelligent behavior. The article also surveys some already-available computational tools for facilitating the construction of rule-based knowledge bases and discusses the inference methods (particularly backward- and forward-chaining) that are provided as part of these tools. The article concludes with a consideration of the future improvement and expansion of such tools.The third article, "Logic Programming, " by Michael Genesereth and Matthew Ginsberg, provides a tutorial introduction to the formal method of programming by description in the predicate calculus. Unlike traditional programming, which emphasizes how computations are to be performed, logic programming focuses on the what of objects and their behavior. The article illustrates the ease with which incremental additions can be made to a logic-oriented knowledge base, as well as the automatic facilities for inference (through theorem proving) and explanation that result from such formal descriptions. A practical example of diagnosis of digital device malfunctions is used to show how significantand complex problems can be represented in the formalism.A note to the reader who may infer that the AI community is being split into competing camps by these three methodologies: Although each provides advantages in certain specific domains (logic where the domain can be readily axiomatized and where complete causal models are available, rules where most of the knowledge can be conveniently expressed as experiential heuristics, and frames where complex structural descriptions are necessary to adequately describe the domain), the current view is one of synthesis rather than exclusivity. Both logic and rule-based systems commonly incorporate frame-like structures to facilitate the representation of large amounts of factual information, and frame-based systems like KEE allow both production rules and predicate calculus statements to be stored within and activated from frames to do inference. The next generation of knowledge representation tools may even help users to select appropriate methodologies for each particular class of knowledge, and then automatically integrate the various methodologies so selected into a consistent framework for knowledge. "
series	journal paper
last changed	2003/04/23 15:14

_id	6db4
authors	Karakatsanis, Andreas Georgiou
year	1985
title	Floder: A Floor Designer Expert System
source	Department of Civil Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh PA
summary	The use of computers in structural design for the last two decades has been limited to algorithmic and procedural tasks. The use of expert system environments facilitates the implementation of conceptual tasks in computer programs. The goal of this study is to develop an expert system for the structural design of floor framings. FLODER, the resulting expert system, generates, analyzes, and evaluates floor framings for a given architectural plan. Framing generation consists of determination of the locations of structural elements in the architectural plan. Analysis involves an approximation of the dimensions of the slabs. Evaluation numerically ranks all generated framings using heuristic features for the alternatives. FLODER is implemented in OPS5 and LISP. The primary representations used are OPS5 production rules for the knowledge-base, and OPS5 working memory elements, for the context. Tasks amenable to algorithmic approaches are implemented in LISP. FLODER, even in its present state, can be viewed as a useful assistant to a designer. It can rapidly generate and evaluate alternative framings for a given architectural plan and thus increase the work productivity of its users [includes bibliography].
keywords	Knowledge Base, Systems, Design, Architecture, Civil Engineering, Representation, Expert Systems, Floor Plans, Synthesis, Structures
series	CADline
last changed	1999/02/15 15:27

_id	a127
authors	Rasdorf, William J. and Salley, George C.
year	1985
title	Generative Engineering Databases - Toward Expert Systems
source	Computers and Structures. Pergamon Press, 1985. vol. 22: pp. 11-15
summary	CADLINE has abstract only. Engineering data management, incorporating concepts of optimization with data representation, is receiving increasing attention. Research in this area promises advantages for many engineering applications, particularly those which use data innovatively. This paper presents a framework for a comprehensive, relational database management system that combines a knowledge base (KB) of design constraints with a database (DB) of engineering data items to achieve a 'generative database' - one which automatically generates new engineering design data according to the design constraints stored in the knowledge base. Thus, in addition to the designer and engineering design and analysis application programs, the database itself contributes to the design process. The KB/DB framework proposed here requires a database that is able to store all of the data normally associated with engineering design and to accurately represent the interactions between constraints and the stored data while guaranteeing its integrity. The framework also requires a knowledge base that is able to store all the constraints imposed upon the engineering design process. The goal sought is a central integrated repository of data, supporting interfaces to a wide variety of application programs and supporting processing capabilities for maintaining integrity while generating new data. The resulting system permits the unaided generation of constrained data values, thereby serving as an active design assistant. This paper suggests this new conceptual framework as a means of improving engineering data representation, generation, use, and management
keywords	management, optimization, synthesis, database, expert systems, civil engineering
series	CADline
last changed	2003/06/02 10:24

_id	8ae8
authors	Ayala, D., P. Brunet and Juan (et al)
year	1985
title	Object Representation by Means of Nominimal Division Quadtrees and Octrees
source	ACM Transactions on Graphics. January, 1985. vol. 4: pp. 41-59 : ill. includes bibliography
summary	Quadtree representation of two-dimensional objects is performed with a tree that describes the recursive subdivision of the more complex parts of a picture until the desired resolution is reached. At the end, all the leaves of the tree are square cells that lie completely inside or outside the object. There are two great disadvantages in the use of quadtrees as a representation scheme for objects in geometric modeling system: The amount of memory required for polygonal objects is too great, and it is difficult to recompute the boundary representation of the object after some Boolean operations have been performed. In the present paper a new class of quadtrees, in which nodes may contain zero or one edge, is introduced. By using these quadtrees, storage requirements are reduced and it is possible to obtain the exact backward conversion to boundary representation. Algorithms for the generation of the quadtree, boolean operation, and recomputation of the boundary representation are presented, and their complexities in time and space are discussed. Three- dimensional algorithms working on octrees are also presented. Their use in the geometric modeling of three-dimensional polyhedral objects is discussed
keywords	geometric modeling, algorithms, octree, quadtree, curves, curved surfaces, boolean operations
series	CADline
last changed	2003/06/02 13:58

_id	2928
authors	Barsky, Brian A. and De Rose, Tony D.
year	1985
title	The Beta2-spline : A Special Case of the Beta-spline Curve and Surface Representation
source	IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications September, 1985. vol. 5: pp. 46-58 : ill. includes bibliography.
summary	This article develops a special case of the Beta-spline curve and surface technique called the Beta2-spline. While a general Beta-spline has two parameters (B1 and B2) controlling its shape, the special case presented here has only the single parameter B2. Experience has shown this to be a simple but very useful special case that is computationally more efficient than the general case. Optimized algorithms for the evaluation of the Beta2-spline basis functions and rendering of Beta2-spline curves and surfaces via subdivision are presented. This technique is proving to be quite useful in the modeling of complex shapes. The representation is sufficiently general and flexible so as to be capable of modeling irregular curved-surface objects such as automobile bodies, aircraft fuselages, ship hulls, turbine blades, and bottles
keywords	B-splines, curved surfaces, computational geometry, representation, algorithms, computer graphics, rendering
series	CADline
last changed	2003/06/02 14:41

_id	acadia06_068
id	acadia06_068
authors	Elys, John
year	2006
title	Digital Ornament
source	Synthetic Landscapes [Proceedings of the 25th Annual Conference of the Association for Computer-Aided Design in Architecture] pp. 68-78
doi	https://doi.org/10.52842/conf.acadia.2006.068
summary	Gaming software has a history of fostering development of economical and creative methods to deal with hardware limitations. Traditionally the visual representation of gaming software has been a poor offspring of high-end visualization. In a twist of irony, this paper proposes that game production software leads the way into a new era of physical digital ornament. The toolbox of the rendering engine evolved rapidly between 1974-1985 and it is still today, 20 years later the main component of all visualization programs. The development of the bump map is of particular interest; its evolution into a physical displacement map provides untold opportunities of the appropriation of the 2D image to a physical 3D object.To expose the creative potential of the displacement map, a wide scope of existing displacement usage has been identified: Top2maya is a scientific appropriation, Caruso St John Architects an architectural precedent and Tord Boonje’s use of 2D digital pattern provides us with an artistic production precedent. Current gaming technologies give us an indication of how the resolution of displacement is set to enter an unprecedented level of geometric detail. As modernity was inspired by the machine age, we should be led by current technological advancement and appropriate its usage. It is about a move away from the simplification of structure and form to one that deals with the real possibilities of expanding the dialogue of surface topology. Digital Ornament is a kinetic process rather than static, its intentions lie in returning the choice of bespoke materials back to the Architect, Designer and Artist.
series	ACADIA
email
last changed	2022/06/07 07:55

_id	4e29
authors	Gero, John S. and Coyne, Richard D.
year	1985
title	Logic Programming As a Means of Representing Semantics in Design Languages
source	Environment and Planning B. 1985. vol. 12: pp. 351-369 : ill. includes bibliography
summary	Logic programming is discussed as a method for representing aspects of design language: Descriptions of designs domain knowledge, transformation rules, design grammar and control mechanisms necessary to implement rules. The applicability of logic programming to the representation of semantics in design is also explored. Control at the semantic level provides a means of directing the automated generation of designs. Examples are drawn from a rule-based design system written in the logic programming language PROLOG
keywords	PROLOG, logic, programming, design, shape grammars, semantics, languages, representation
series	CADline
email
last changed	2003/05/17 10:17

_id	027b
authors	Griffiths, J.G.
year	1985
title	Table-Driven Algorithms for Generating Space-Filling Curves
source	Computer Aided Design. January/ February, 1985. vol. 17: pp. 37-41 : ill. includes bibliography
summary	A simple general method for constructing space-filling curves is presented, based on the use of tables. It is shown how the use of Hilbert's curve can enhance the performance of Warnock's algorithm. A procedure is given which generates Hilbert curves or Sierpinski curves. A second procedure is given which generates Warnock's windows in Hilbert order
keywords	computer graphics, rendering, algorithms, curves, representation, display
series	CADline
last changed	2003/06/02 13:58

_id	07c6
authors	Kalay, Y.E., Harfmann, A.C. and Swerdloff, L.M.
year	1985
title	ALEX: A Knowledge-Based Architectural Design System
source	ACADIA Workshop ‘85 [ACADIA Conference Proceedings] Tempe (Arizona / USA) 2-3 November 1985, pp. 96-108
doi	https://doi.org/10.52842/conf.acadia.1985.096
summary	A methodology for the development of a knowledge-based computer-aided design system and its experimental application in the domain of single family house design are presented. The methodology involves integrating within a unified design environment, tools and techniques that have been independently developed in various disciplines (including knowledge representation, information management, geometric modeling, human,machine interface, and architectural design). By assuming the role of active design partners, the resulting systems are expected to increase the productivity of designers, improve the quality of their products, and reduce cost and lead time of the design process as a whole. ALEX (Architecture Learning Expert), a particular application of this methodology, is a prototype knowledge-based CAD system in the domain of single family house design. It employs user-interactive, goal directed heuristic search strategies in a solution space that consists of a network of objects. Message-based change propagation techniques, guided by domain-specific knowledge, are used to ensure database integrity and well-formedness. The significance of the methodology and its application is threefold: it furthers our knowledge of the architectural design process, explores the utilization of knowledge engineering methods in design, and serves as a prototype for developing the next generation of computer-aided architectural design systems.
series	ACADIA
email
last changed	2022/06/07 07:52

_id	c361
authors	Logan, Brian S.
year	1986
title	Representing the Structure of Design Problems
source	Computer-Aided Architectural Design Futures [CAAD Futures Conference Proceedings / ISBN 0-408-05300-3] Delft (The Netherlands), 18-19 September 1985, pp. 158-170
summary	In recent years several experimental CAD systems have emerged which, focus specifically on the structure of design problems rather than on solution generation or appraisal (Sussman and Steele, 1980; McCallum, 1982). However, the development of these systems has been hampered by the lack of an adequate theoretical basis. There is little or no argument as to what the statements comprising these models actually mean, or on the types of operations that should be provided. This chapter describes an attempt to develop a semantically adequate basis for a model of the structure of design problems and presents a representation of this model in formal logic.
series	CAAD Futures
last changed	1999/04/03 17:58

_id	020d
authors	Shaviv, Edna
year	1986
title	Layout Design Problems: Systematic Approaches
source	Computer-Aided Architectural Design Futures [CAAD Futures Conference Proceedings / ISBN 0-408-05300-3] Delft (The Netherlands), 18-19 September 1985, pp. 28-52
summary	The complexity of the layout design problems known as the 'spatial allocation problems' gave rise to several approaches, which can be generally classified into two main streams. The first attempts to use the computer to generate solutions of the building layout, while in the second, computers are used only to evaluate manually generated solutions. In both classes the generation or evaluation of the layout are performed systematically. Computer algorithms for 'spatial allocation problems' first appeared more than twenty-five years ago (Koopmans, 1957). From 1957 to 1970 over thirty different programs were developed for generating the floor plan layout automatically, as is summarized in CAP-Computer Architecture Program, Vol. 2 (Stewart et al., 1970). It seems that any architect who entered the area of CAAD felt that it was his responsibility to find a solution to this prime architectural problem. Most of the programs were developed for batch processing, and were run on a mainframe without any sophisticated input/output devices. It is interesting to mention that, because of the lack of these sophisticated input/output devices, early researchers used the approach of automatic generation of optimal or quasioptimal layout solution under given constraints. Gradually, we find a recession and slowdown in the development of computer programs for generation of layout solutions. With the improvement of interactive input/output devices and user interfaces, the inclination today is to develop integrated systems in which the architectural solution is obtained manually by the architect and is introduced to the computer for the appraisal of the designer's layout solution (Maver, 1977). The manmachine integrative systems could work well, but it seems that in most of the integrated systems today, and in the commercial ones in particular, there is no route to any appraisal technique of the layout problem. Without any evaluation techniques in commercial integrated systems it seems that the geometrical database exists Just to create working drawings and sometimes also perspectives.
series	CAAD Futures
email
last changed	2003/05/16 20:58

_id	678e
authors	Aish, Robert
year	1986
title	Three-dimensional Input and Visualization
source	Computer-Aided Architectural Design Futures [CAAD Futures Conference Proceedings / ISBN 0-408-05300-3] Delft (The Netherlands), 18-19 September 1985, pp. 68-84
summary	The aim of this chapter is to investigate techniques by which man-computer interaction could be improved, specifically in the context of architectural applications of CAD. In this application the object being designed is often an assembly of defined components. Even if the building is not actually fabricated from such components, it is usually conceptualized in these terms. In a conventional graphics- based CAD system these components are usually represented by graphical icons which are displayed on the graphics screen and arranged by the user. The system described here consists of three- dimensional modelling elements which the user physically assembles to form his design. Unlike conventional architectural models which are static (i.e. cannot be changed by the users) and passive (i.e. cannot be read by a CAD system), this model is both 'user generated' and 'machine readable'. The user can create, edit and view the model by simple, natural modelling activities and without the need to learn complex operating commands often associated with CAD systems. In particular, the user can view the model, altering his viewpoint and focus of attention in a completely natural way. Conventional computer graphics within an associated CAD system are used to represent the detailed geometry which the different three-dimensional icons may represent. In addition, computer graphics are also used to present the output of the performance attributes of the objects being modelled. In the architectural application described in this chapter an energy- balance evaluation is displayed for a building designed using the modelling device. While this system is not intended to offer a completely free-form input facility it can be considered to be a specialist man-machine interface of particular relevance to architects or engineers.
series	CAAD Futures
email
last changed	2003/11/21 15:15

_id	cc15
authors	Ansaldi, Silvia, De Floriani, Leila and Falcidieno, Bianca
year	1985
title	Geometric Modeling of Solid Objects by Using a Face Adjacency Graph Representation
source	SIGGRAPH '85 Conference Proceedings. July, 1985. vol. 19 ; no. 3: pp. 131-139 : ill. includes bibliography
summary	A relational graph structure based on a boundary representation of solid objects is described. In this structure, called Face Adjacency Graph, nodes represent object faces, whereas edges and vertices are encoded into arcs and hyperarcs. Based on the face adjacency graph, the authors define a set of primitive face-oriented Euler operators, and a set of macro operators for face manipulation, which allow a compact definition and an efficient updating of solid objects. The authors briefly describe a hierarchical graph structure based on the face adjacency graph, which provides a representation of an object at different levels of detail. Thus it is consistent with the stepwise refinement process through which the object description is produced
keywords	geometric modeling, graphs, objects, representation, data structures,B-rep, solid modeling, Euler operators
series	CADline
last changed	2003/06/02 10:24

_id	ddssar0206
id	ddssar0206
authors	Bax, M.F.Th. and Trum, H.M.G.J.
year	2002
title	Faculties of Architecture
source	Timmermans, Harry (Ed.), Sixth Design and Decision Support Systems in Architecture and Urban Planning - Part one: Architecture Proceedings Avegoor, the Netherlands), 2002
summary	In order to be inscribed in the European Architect’s register the study program leading to the diploma ‘Architect’ has to meet the criteria of the EC Architect’s Directive (1985). The criteria are enumerated in 11 principles of Article 3 of the Directive. The Advisory Committee, established by the European Council got the task to examine such diplomas in the case some doubts are raised by other Member States. To carry out this task a matrix was designed, as an independent interpreting framework that mediates between the principles of Article 3 and the actual study program of a faculty. Such a tool was needed because of inconsistencies in the list of principles, differences between linguistic versions ofthe Directive, and quantification problems with time, devoted to the principles in the study programs. The core of the matrix, its headings, is a categorisation of the principles on a higher level of abstractionin the form of a taxonomy of domains and corresponding concepts. Filling in the matrix means that each study element of the study programs is analysed according to their content in terms of domains; thesummation of study time devoted to the various domains results in a so-called ‘profile of a faculty’. Judgement of that profile takes place by committee of peers. The domains of the taxonomy are intrinsically the same as the concepts and categories, needed for the description of an architectural design object: the faculties of architecture. This correspondence relates the taxonomy to the field of design theory and philosophy. The taxonomy is an application of Domain theory. This theory,developed by the authors since 1977, takes as a view that the architectural object only can be described fully as an integration of all types of domains. The theory supports the idea of a participatory andinterdisciplinary approach to design, which proved to be awarding both from a scientific and a social point of view. All types of domains have in common that they are measured in three dimensions: form, function and process, connecting the material aspects of the object with its social and proceduralaspects. In the taxonomy the function dimension is emphasised. It will be argued in the paper that the taxonomy is a categorisation following the pragmatistic philosophy of Charles Sanders Peirce. It will bedemonstrated as well that the taxonomy is easy to handle by giving examples of its application in various countries in the last 5 years. The taxonomy proved to be an adequate tool for judgement ofstudy programs and their subsequent improvement, as constituted by the faculties of a Faculty of Architecture. The matrix is described as the result of theoretical reflection and practical application of a matrix, already in use since 1995. The major improvement of the matrix is its direct connection with Peirce’s universal categories and the self-explanatory character of its structure. The connection with Peirce’s categories gave the matrix a more universal character, which enables application in other fieldswhere the term ‘architecture’ is used as a metaphor for artefacts.
series	DDSS
last changed	2003/11/21 15:16

_id	ddss9408
id	ddss9408
authors	Bax, Thijs and Trum, Henk
year	1994
title	A Taxonomy of Architecture: Core of a Theory of Design
source	Second Design and Decision Support Systems in Architecture & Urban Planning (Vaals, the Netherlands), August 15-19, 1994
summary	The authors developed a taxonomy of concepts in architectural design. It was accepted by the Advisory Committee for education in the field of architecture, a committee advising the European Commission and Member States, as a reference for their task to harmonize architectural education in Europe. The taxonomy is based on Domain theory, a theory developed by the authors, based on General Systems Theory and the notion of structure according to French Structuralism, takes a participatory viewpoint for the integration of knowledge and interests by parties in the architectural design process. The paper discusses recent developments of the taxonomy, firstly as a result of a confrontation with similar endeavours to structure the field of architectural design, secondly as a result of applications of education and architectural design practice, and thirdly as a result of theapplication of some views derived from the philosophical work from Charles Benjamin Peirce. Developments concern the structural form of the taxonomy comprising basic concepts and levelbound scale concepts, and the specification of the content of the fields which these concepts represent. The confrontation with similar endeavours concerns mainly the work of an ARCUK workingparty, chaired by Tom Marcus, based on the European Directive from 1985. The application concerns experiences with a taxonomy-based enquiry in order to represent the profile of educational programmes of schools and faculties of architecture in Europe in qualitative and quantitative terms. This enquiry was carried out in order to achieve a basis for comparison and judgement, and a basis for future guidelines including quantitative aspects. Views of Peirce, more specifically his views on triarchy as a way of ordering and structuring processes of thinking,provide keys for a re-definition of concepts as building stones of the taxonomy in terms of the form-function-process-triad, which strengthens the coherence of the taxonomy, allowing for a more regular representation in the form of a hierarchical ordered matrix.
series	DDSS
last changed	2003/08/07 16:36

_id	c3b1
authors	Berry, R. E. and Meekings, B.A.E.
year	1985
title	A Style Analysis of C Programs
source	communications of the ACM. January, 1985. vol. 29: pp. 80-88
summary	Since programming is considered by many to be learned by experience and example, rather than instruction, the authors analyzed code produced by professional programmers. C programs comprising the UNIX operating system and its utilities were chosen. The authors have arbitrarily selected a large body of professionally produced code and subjected it to 'stylish analysis.' Each program was given a percentage 'score' for style that consists of contributions in varying degrees from various program features like module length, line length, reserved words etc
keywords	languages, C, programming, techniques
series	CADline
last changed	2003/06/02 13:58

_id	a6f1
authors	Bridges, A.H.
year	1986
title	Any Progress in Systematic Design?
source	Computer-Aided Architectural Design Futures [CAAD Futures Conference Proceedings / ISBN 0-408-05300-3] Delft (The Netherlands), 18-19 September 1985, pp. 5-15
summary	In order to discuss this question it is necessary to reflect awhile on design methods in general. The usual categorization discusses 'generations' of design methods, but Levy (1981) proposes an alternative approach. He identifies five paradigm shifts during the course of the twentieth century which have influenced design methods debate. The first paradigm shift was achieved by 1920, when concern with industrial arts could be seen to have replaced concern with craftsmanship. The second shift, occurring in the early 1930s, resulted in the conception of a design profession. The third happened in the 1950s, when the design methods debate emerged; the fourth took place around 1970 and saw the establishment of 'design research'. Now, in the 1980s, we are going through the fifth paradigm shift, associated with the adoption of a holistic approach to design theory and with the emergence of the concept of design ideology. A major point in Levy's paper was the observation that most of these paradigm shifts were associated with radical social reforms or political upheavals. For instance, we may associate concern about public participation with the 1970s shift and the possible use (or misuse) of knowledge, information and power with the 1980s shift. What has emerged, however, from the work of colleagues engaged since the 1970s in attempting to underpin the practice of design with a coherent body of design theory is increasing evidence of the fundamental nature of a person's engagement with the design activity. This includes evidence of the existence of two distinctive modes of thought, one of which can be described as cognitive modelling and the other which can be described as rational thinking. Cognitive modelling is imagining, seeing in the mind's eye. Rational thinking is linguistic thinking, engaging in a form of internal debate. Cognitive modelling is externalized through action, and through the construction of external representations, especially drawings. Rational thinking is externalized through verbal language and, more formally, through mathematical and scientific notations. Cognitive modelling is analogic, presentational, holistic, integrative and based upon pattern recognition and pattern manipulation. Rational thinking is digital, sequential, analytical, explicatory and based upon categorization and logical inference. There is some relationship between the evidence for two distinctive modes of thought and the evidence of specialization in cerebral hemispheres (Cross, 1984). Design methods have tended to focus upon the rational aspects of design and have, therefore, neglected the cognitive aspects. By recognizing that there are peculiar 'designerly' ways of thinking combining both types of thought process used to perceive, construct and comprehend design representations mentally and then transform them into an external manifestation current work in design theory is promising at last to have some relevance to design practice.
series	CAAD Futures
email
last changed	2003/11/21 15:16

_id	e4bc
authors	Cass, Christopher
year	1985
title	Creativity and Automation: Thoughtful Training Guarantees Room for Both
source	computer Graphics World. November, 1985. vol. 8: pp. 33-34, 36 : col. ill
summary	To avoid losing and ignoring the conceptual and functional importance of traditional design and modeling skills, firms should control the use of new technology in such a way that traditional organizational benefits are retained. Problems and suggestions were presented for the training programs given to those who already possess design skills in order to enhance creativity
keywords	creativity, training, automation, practice
series	CADline
last changed	1999/02/12 15:07

_id	avocaad_2001_02
id	avocaad_2001_02
authors	Cheng-Yuan Lin, Yu-Tung Liu
year	2001
title	A digital Procedure of Building Construction: A practical project
source	AVOCAAD - ADDED VALUE OF COMPUTER AIDED ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, Nys Koenraad, Provoost Tom, Verbeke Johan, Verleye Johan (Eds.), (2001) Hogeschool voor Wetenschap en Kunst - Departement Architectuur Sint-Lucas, Campus Brussel, ISBN 80-76101-05-1
summary	In earlier times in which computers have not yet been developed well, there has been some researches regarding representation using conventional media (Gombrich, 1960; Arnheim, 1970). For ancient architects, the design process was described abstractly by text (Hewitt, 1985; Cable, 1983); the process evolved from unselfconscious to conscious ways (Alexander, 1964). Till the appearance of 2D drawings, these drawings could only express abstract visual thinking and visually conceptualized vocabulary (Goldschmidt, 1999). Then with the massive use of physical models in the Renaissance, the form and space of architecture was given better precision (Millon, 1994). Researches continued their attempts to identify the nature of different design tools (Eastman and Fereshe, 1994). Simon (1981) figured out that human increasingly relies on other specialists, computational agents, and materials referred to augment their cognitive abilities. This discourse was verified by recent research on conception of design and the expression using digital technologies (McCullough, 1996; Perez-Gomez and Pelletier, 1997). While other design tools did not change as much as representation (Panofsky, 1991; Koch, 1997), the involvement of computers in conventional architecture design arouses a new design thinking of digital architecture (Liu, 1996; Krawczyk, 1997; Murray, 1997; Wertheim, 1999). The notion of the link between ideas and media is emphasized throughout various fields, such as architectural education (Radford, 2000), Internet, and restoration of historical architecture (Potier et al., 2000). Information technology is also an important tool for civil engineering projects (Choi and Ibbs, 1989). Compared with conventional design media, computers avoid some errors in the process (Zaera, 1997). However, most of the application of computers to construction is restricted to simulations in building process (Halpin, 1990). It is worth studying how to employ computer technology meaningfully to bring significant changes to concept stage during the process of building construction (Madazo, 2000; Dave, 2000) and communication (Haymaker, 2000).In architectural design, concept design was achieved through drawings and models (Mitchell, 1997), while the working drawings and even shop drawings were brewed and communicated through drawings only. However, the most effective method of shaping building elements is to build models by computer (Madrazo, 1999). With the trend of 3D visualization (Johnson and Clayton, 1998) and the difference of designing between the physical environment and virtual environment (Maher et al. 2000), we intend to study the possibilities of using digital models, in addition to drawings, as a critical media in the conceptual stage of building construction process in the near future (just as the critical role that physical models played in early design process in the Renaissance). This research is combined with two practical building projects, following the progress of construction by using digital models and animations to simulate the structural layouts of the projects. We also tried to solve the complicated and even conflicting problems in the detail and piping design process through an easily accessible and precise interface. An attempt was made to delineate the hierarchy of the elements in a single structural and constructional system, and the corresponding relations among the systems. Since building construction is often complicated and even conflicting, precision needed to complete the projects can not be based merely on 2D drawings with some imagination. The purpose of this paper is to describe all the related elements according to precision and correctness, to discuss every possibility of different thinking in design of electric-mechanical engineering, to receive feedback from the construction projects in the real world, and to compare the digital models with conventional drawings.Through the application of this research, the subtle relations between the conventional drawings and digital models can be used in the area of building construction. Moreover, a theoretical model and standard process is proposed by using conventional drawings, digital models and physical buildings. By introducing the intervention of digital media in design process of working drawings and shop drawings, there is an opportune chance to use the digital media as a prominent design tool. This study extends the use of digital model and animation from design process to construction process. However, the entire construction process involves various details and exceptions, which are not discussed in this paper. These limitations should be explored in future studies.
series	AVOCAAD
email
last changed	2005/09/09 10:48

_id	ascaad2006_paper20
id	ascaad2006_paper20
authors	Chougui, Ali
year	2006
title	The Digital Design Process: reflections on architectural design positions on complexity and CAAD
source	Computing in Architecture / Re-Thinking the Discourse: The Second International Conference of the Arab Society for Computer Aided Architectural Design (ASCAAD 2006), 25-27 April 2006, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
summary	These instructions are intended to guide contributors to the Second Architecture is presently engaged in an impatient search for solutions to critical questions about the nature and the identity of the discipline, and digital technology is a key agent for prevailing innovations in architectural design. The problem of complexity underlies all design problems. With the advent of CAD however, Architect’s ability to truly represent complexity has increased considerably. Another source that provides information about dealing with complexity is architectural theory. As Rowe (1987) states, architectural theory constitutes “a corpus of principles that are agreed upon and therefore worthy of emulation”. Architectural theory often is a mixed reflection on the nature of architectural design, design processes, made in descriptive and prescriptive terms (see Kruft 1985). Complexity is obviously not a new issue in architectural theory. Since it is an inherent characteristic of design problems, it has been dealt with in many different ways throughout history. Contemporary architects incorporate the computer in their design process. They produce architecture that is generated by the use of particle systems, simulation software, animation software, but also the more standard modelling tools. The architects reflect on the impact of the computer in their theories, and display changes in style by using information modelling techniques that have become versatile enough to encompass the complexity of information in the architectural design process. In this way, architectural style and theory can provide directions to further develop CAD. Most notable is the acceptance of complexity as a given fact, not as a phenomenon to oppose in systems of organization, but as a structuring principle to begin with. No matter what information modelling paradigm is used, complex and huge amounts of information need to be processed by designers. A key aspect in the combination of CAD, complexity, and architectural design is the role of the design representation. The way the design is presented and perceived during the design process is instrumental to understanding the design task. More architects are trying to reformulate this working of the representation. The intention of this paper is to present and discuss the current state of the art in architectural design positions on complexity and CAAD, and to reflect in particular on the role of digital design representations in this discussion. We also try to investigate how complexity can be dealt with, by looking at architects, in particular their styles and theories. The way architects use digital media and graphic representations can be informative how units of information can be formed and used in the design process. A case study is a concrete architect’s design processes such as Peter Eisenman Rem Koolhaas, van Berkel, Lynn, and Franke gehry, who embrace complexity and make it a focus point in their design, Rather than viewing it as problematic issue, by using computer as an indispensable instrument in their approaches.
series	ASCAAD
email
last changed	2007/04/08 19:47

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